The Spiritual Heartland of Mustang
Researched and Written by Vaishali Sinha
High above the windswept gorges of Nepal’s Upper Mustang clings a thousand-year-old mystery waiting to be uncovered. Carved into sheer rock faces, the Sky Caves of Mustang are an astonishing relic of the past, an archaeological wonder that has left researchers, adventurers, and spiritual seekers from around the globe captivated for generations. There are about 10,000 man-made caves punctuating the mountains like forgotten doorways into another world and time.
Mustang: The Last Forbidden Kingdom
Once an independent kingdom known as Lo, Upper Mustang became part of Nepal in the late 18th century, its rugged remoteness helping preserve a way of life that's deeply rooted in Tibetan history and culture with stories and secrets still buried deep in the folds of the mountains. The caves, many of which sit precariously 155 feet above the valley floor, raise the same lingering questions: Who built them? Why were they abandoned? What stories remain etched in their silent interiors?
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Their exact origins are unknown, but evidence suggests they were used as burial chambers as early as 1000 BC, long before Buddhism arrived in the region. Later, during times of conflict in the 10th century AD, they became safe havens, transformed into entire cliffside communities. The caves offer visitors a rare glimpse into the Himalayan region’s ancient architecture and artistic heritage. Their ongoing discovery and study continue to shed light on the civilizations that once thrived in this remote landscape. Overlooking the present-day village of Samdzong near the Kali Gandaki River, these caves are a testament to human ingenuity, resilience, and spiritual devotion.
Conspicuously “off-limits” for centuries,
Mustang remains one of the most mysterious and evocative corners of the Himalayas. Wild and barren, shaped by relentless high altitudes and an unforgiving climate, this isolated region is home to only a scattering of small villages, ancient Tibetan Buddhist monasteries, and the legendary sky caves carved high into its cliff faces. This is the land of snow leopards and the mythical yeti, a place where the modern world only recently arrived, and even then, cautiously.
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Historically known as the Kingdom of Lo, Mustang remained an independent kingdom until 1795 when it was annexed by Nepal. It was only after Nepal became a republic in 2008 that the region officially ceased to be a kingdom. Today, the region is divided into Upper and Lower Mustang, with Upper Mustang being a restricted area requiring a special permit to enter. The frontier to this remote realm begins at the village of Kagbeni.
At the heart of Upper Mustang lies Lo Manthang, the fabled walled city. Built in 1380, the city appears almost unchanged today, with its thick mud walls, narrow alleyways, and ancient monasteries preserving a way of life steeped in medieval Tibetan culture. Sitting at around 12,500 feet (3810m), Lo Manthang was once ruled by a king who resided in a royal palace that still stands at the city’s center.
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Even as recently as in 1992, Mustang had no roads at all. Until the road to Lo Manthang was completed in 2016, the only way to get there was by trekking. Travelers had to trek for days across high mountain passes, through a dry, rocky landscape, facing strong winds. The harsh climate and tough terrain made the journey exceedingly challenging, and only the truly adventurous and most determined attempted it.
Upper Mustang: Where Time Stands Still
Tucked behind the towering peaks of the Annapurna and Dhaulagiri ranges lies Upper Mustang, one of the remotest mountain valleys that feels more like a preserved chapter from another century than a place on today’s map. Known as Lo to locals, Upper Mustang lies at around 4,000 meters above sea level and is largely shielded from the monsoon by the Himalayan barrier, making it an arid, high-altitude desert rather than the lush, monsoon-soaked valleys seen elsewhere in Nepal. This results in a fascinatingly dramatic landscape, with red cliffs, sculpted canyons, and dry riverbeds. However, even amidst this harsh environment, clusters of villages thrive, nourished by streams and traditional irrigation with barley, buckwheat, and fruit orchards, supporting life in the rugged terrain.
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Upper Mustang is divided into two main areas. The southern part is called Lower Lo, also known by its Nepali name Baragaon, which means "Twelve Villages." North of the town of Gelung lies Upper Lo, also called Lod Tsho Dun, the legendary "Forbidden Kingdom of Lo." Often referred to as Nepal’s “last forbidden kingdom,” Upper Mustang remained sealed off from the outside world until the early 1990s. Westerners were rarely allowed in, and those who ventured here did so on special missions - explorers, scholars, and a few brave adventurers. It wasn’t until 1992 that Upper Mustang was officially opened to travelers, and because of this long isolation, its cultural and spiritual traditions and stories have stayed remarkably intact. Since then, researchers from around the globe, including archaeologists, anthropologists, historians, have been drawn to study its ancient caves, oral traditions, art, and architecture.
A place where Tibetan Buddhism and
the ancient Bön religion coexist, deep-rooted in every aspect of daily life, the spiritual roots of Mustang are reflected not only in its sacred texts and rituals but also in the stunning monasteries, cliffside caves, ancient chortens (stupas), temples, and fortress ruins scattered across its arid, rugged landscape, many still standing strong against the winds of time. One of the most fascinating aspects of Mustang is its architectural heritage. For generations, the people of Mustang have relied on wood, not just for building their homes and temples, but also as a vital source of fuel. The structures, built using wood, alongside stone and clay, reflect deep respect for the natural surroundings that shape the region’s cultural heritage.
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Uniquely positioned on the Tibetan Plateau, the land may be harsh, but its stark beauty and spiritual depth continue to captivate all who journey into its silence. With a total population of around 14,000, life beautifully flourishes around traditional villages, scattered along the Kali Gandaki Valley and the side valleys of Mustang. Lo Manthang itself has fewer than a thousand residents, preserving the tranquility and mystique of a medieval world.
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Lo Manthang: A Hidden Jewel Behind the Pass
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After crossing a few notable high mountain passes on your journey through Upper Mustang, a whole new world opens up. Lo Manthang, the ancient walled city of Upper Mustang, finally comes into view. The descent reveals a dramatic change in landscape, with vast barren lands stretching into the distance and the majestic Himalayan peaks of Mount Dhaulagiri and the Annapurna towering in the backdrop. It’s here, standing at the edge of the world, that explorers catch their first glimpse of Lo Manthang, tucked away in timeless beauty.
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Once the capital of the ancient Kingdom of Mustang, the iconic city of Lo Manthang is a gateway into Tibetan heritage. Surrounded by sturdy mud-brick walls, it’s a living museum of culture, spirituality, and survival in one of the world’s most remote regions. Its narrow alleys are lined with traditional homes, their flat roofs clustered together amidst fluttering prayer flags. The moment you enter, you’re immersed in the slow rhythm of the Lowa people’s lives, quiet yet deeply connected to their traditions. The historic royal palace stands tall at the center, surrounded by age-old monasteries that echo with chants and spinning prayer wheels.
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From the bustling local markets to sacred mani stones and whitewashed chortens, every corner of Lo Manthang tells a story. It’s a place where history and culture breathe through the walls, leaving every visitor with a sense of awe. If you’re seeking a destination that’s both soul-stirring and visually stunning, Lo Manthang offers a cultural encounter like no other, still so untouched and unforgettable.
Tracing Upper Mustang’s Deep Ties with Tibet and Beyond
The history of Upper Mustang is deeply connected to the history of its neighbours, Tibet (especially the Ngari region), Ladakh, and the former kingdom of Jumla. Tibetan influence has been strong in this region since the 7th century, shaping Lo’s cultural and religious identity. In the 8th century, when Bön priests were expelled from Tibet, their ancient spiritual practices found a new home in Mustang. By the 10th century, Lo came under the influence of Zhang Zhung, a major center of the Bön religion. Even as Tibetan Buddhism flourished in the region from the 10th century onward, many Bön traditions continued to thrive among the local people.
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Between the 11th and 13th centuries, Mustang became a stopover for renowned Buddhist scholars and monks, particularly from the Sakya, Nyingma, Kadampa, and Kagyü schools, who travelled along the trade route. Many stayed for long periods, inspiring the construction of monasteries and temples that still stand today. Hence, this period can be considered as a golden era of cultural exchange. Ideas and artistry flowed in from Central Asia through Western Tibet and from Eastern India via the Kathmandu Valley, enriching Mustang’s spiritual life and leaving behind a legacy of sacred architecture, vibrant murals, and deep artistic devotion.
Unraveling the DNA of Mustang’s First Inhabitants
Modern research is now shedding light on the genetic history of Mustang’s cave builders. Despite the region's exposure to external influences through trade and cultural exchanges, the genetic makeup of high-altitude Himalayan populations has remained remarkably stable over millennia. Ancient DNA (aDNA) analysis for individuals dating between 1420 BCE and 650 CE reveals that these early Himalayan settlers possessed clear East Asian ancestry, closely aligning with populations from the Tibetan Plateau. This genetic affinity suggests that Mustang was settled by early branches of the Tibetan lineage, indicating a long-standing human presence in the region.
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A comprehensive study published in Nature Communications analyzed genome-wide data for 33 ancient individuals from high-altitude sites in Nepal, including Chokhopani, Kyang, and Samdzong. The results revealed that these individuals shared the majority of their ancestry with Late Neolithic populations from the northeastern edge of the Tibetan Plateau, thus providing deeper insights into the origins of the ancient populations inhabiting the Sky Caves of Mustang. Additionally, a minor genetic component from a distinct Paleolithic Eurasian lineage was identified, suggesting complex ancestral backgrounds. The findings reinforce the idea that Mustang has long been a cultural crossroads, shaped by migration, trade, and spiritual evolution.
Sky Caves
A Timeline of Transformation
Archaeologists have uncovered a layered history within these caves, revealing their varied use over the centuries
A Living Museum in the Himalayas
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1000 BC: The earliest known inhabitants used the caves as burial sites, a practice that aligns with traditions predating Buddhism’s arrival in the Himalayas.
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3rd–8th century AD: Some evidence suggests a connection to sky burials, a Buddhist funerary practice in which bodies were exposed to the elements or scavenging birds, signifying the cycle of life and rebirth.
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10th century AD: A time of conflict and instability saw these caves repurposed into stacked dwellings, creating entire communities carved into the cliffs for protection.
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12th–15th century AD: As peace settled over Mustang, the caves transformed into meditation chambers and spiritual sanctuaries with mesmerising murals depicting Buddhist deities, ancient manuscripts, and religious sculptures telling stories of devotion and enlightenment.​
Even today, local Mustang communities believe these mountains hold sacred energy. Whether as homes, burial chambers, or temples, the caves represent a profound connection between human history and the divine. The blend of Buddhist and Bon religious influences in the region suggests that Mustang was a meeting ground for diverse spiritual traditions, further adding to its mystique
Today, the Sky Caves of Mustang remain one of the world's most intriguing archaeological sites. Trekking companies lead adventurous souls to their entrances, offering a glimpse into an era when humans carved out life within the mountains. While some caves remain inaccessible, their presence alone is a testament to human resilience, ingenuity, and an enduring connection to the land.
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As scholars continue to study the Mustang caves, new stories will emerge from their depths. But perhaps their greatest lesson is this: within the ancient silence of Mustang’s cliffs, we find echoes of a past that still whispers to those who dare to listen.
During our journeys...
through the rugged landscapes of Mustang, we found ourselves walking the remnants of an ancient world. This place was once a bustling stop along the great Salt Trade Route that connected India, Tibet, and Central Asia. As we followed the winding trails through deep valleys and high passes, we imagined the footsteps of traders, pilgrims, and monks who had passed through centuries before us, leaving behind a remarkable fusion of ideas, beliefs, spirituality, art, and culture. We saw how those layers of history had taken root over time, giving birth to unique spiritual and artistic traditions that remain visible in every corner of the region. We encountered locals who shared stories of their day-to-day life in these breathtaking, remote villages. Despite centuries of upheaval and conquest, Mustang’s identity has endured. From its close ties with Tibet and Jumla to its annexation by Nepal in the 18th century, the region’s history is full of resilience. The fall of the Kingdom of Lo may have marked the end of a political era, but we could feel its cultural spirit, fiercely alive and thriving.
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Upper Mustang, as we experienced it, stands today as one of the last strongholds of Tibetan Buddhist history and cultural heritage. With the fluttering, vibrant prayer flags, the enchanting murals, the awe-inspiring symbols on ancient chortens, and the hauntingly beautiful sky caves carved into the cliffs, Mustang offers a rare glimpse into a storied past, set against the eternal grandeur of the magnificent peaks and the infinite cerulean skies. Standing before those caves, with the wind whistling through the canyons and the vast Himalayan sky overhead, we felt the presence of something far greater than ourselves, a sacred history still etched into the landscape, echoing with secrets that refuse to fade. If there’s still a corner of the world where the past breathes alongside the present, we found it here.
